# Simulation benchmarks: recovery and power

#### tidyILD authors

#### 2026-06-12

This article shows how to use `ild_simulate()` and `ild_power(..., return_sims = TRUE)` to assess parameter recovery for a fixed effect under the package’s bundled Gaussian mixed-model simulation setup, and how that connects to empirical power. It is an illustrative benchmark for that DGP—not a proof that every tidyILD method is validated for all data.

Power answers: “How often do we reject the null when the effect is present?” Recovery answers: “How close are point estimates (and intervals) to the known coefficient across repeated simulations?” Both use the same replication loop inside `ild_power()`.

## Simulation size and precision

Recovery summaries (bias, RMSE, coverage) are Monte Carlo estimates: their sampling variability shrinks as `n_sim` increases (roughly \(\propto 1/\sqrt{n_\text{sim}}\) for means). The worked example below uses `n_sim = 200` as a balance between stability and build time on CRAN; for publication-style tables, consider larger `n_sim` and reporting uncertainty (e.g. bootstrap across replications or analytical approximations where available). Chunks that re-run `ild_power()` are marked with optional `cache = TRUE` so local rebuilds can skip re-simulation when the code is unchanged (not used on CRAN by default).

## What `ild_simulate()` encodes

The base outcome `y` (before `ild_power()` adds a predictor) is built as follows:

- Between-person: independent random intercepts per `id` (scale `bp_effect`).
- Within-person: optional AR(1) structure on de-trended within-person series when `ar1` is set (numeric \(\phi\)); otherwise i.i.d. Gaussian noise (scale `wp_effect`).
- Time: a mild linear-in-time component plus `time` as `POSIXct` from a regular grid (with optional jitter if `irregular = TRUE`).

The formula you fit should match this structure (e.g. random intercept for `id` when using `ild_lme(..., ar1 = FALSE)`). Recovery in this vignette focuses on a single fixed effect added by `ild_power()` on top of that DGP (see below).

## Fixed-effect recovery with `ild_power(..., return_sims = TRUE)`

For each replication, `ild_power()`:

1. Simulates data with `ild_simulate()`.
2. Adds a standard normal predictor `x` and sets `y <- y + effect_size * x` so the true coefficient of `x` is `effect_size` (call it β).
3. Runs `ild_prepare()` and `ild_lme()` with your formula.
4. Records the Wald-based estimate and standard error for the test term.

With `return_sims = TRUE`, you get a tibble of per-replication `estimate`, `std_error`, `p_value`, and `converged`. Use `ild_recovery_metrics()` for bias, RMSE, and nominal Wald interval coverage (normal approximation \(\hat\beta \pm z_{1-\alpha/2} \cdot \mathrm{SE}\)), consistent with the manual calculation shown in earlier package versions.

    library(tidyILD)
    library(dplyr)
    #>
    #> Attaching package: 'dplyr'
    #> The following objects are masked from 'package:stats':
    #>
    #>     filter, lag
    #> The following objects are masked from 'package:base':
    #>
    #>     intersect, setdiff, setequal, union
    library(ggplot2)

    truth <- 0.35
    n_sim <- 200L

    set.seed(2026)
    res <- ild_power(
      formula = y ~ x + (1 | id),
      n_sim = n_sim,
      n_id = 25L,
      n_obs_per = 12L,
      effect_size = truth,
      seed = 2026L,
      return_sims = TRUE,
      verbose = FALSE
    )

    sim <- res$sim_results |> dplyr::filter(converged)

    ild_recovery_metrics(res$sim_results, truth = truth, level = 0.95)
    #> # A tibble: 1 × 8
    #>   truth     n n_total mean_estimate     bias   rmse coverage level
    #>   <dbl> <int>   <int>         <dbl>    <dbl>  <dbl>    <dbl> <dbl>
    #> 1  0.35   200     200         0.346 -0.00404 0.0368    0.945  0.95

Across replications, the mean estimate should be near β, bias near 0, RMSE positive but modest if the model is well specified, and coverage near the nominal level (e.g. 0.95) for large `n_sim`—subject to Monte Carlo noise when `n_sim` is moderate.

    ggplot2::ggplot(sim, ggplot2::aes(x = estimate)) +
      ggplot2::geom_histogram(fill = "steelblue", color = "white", bins = 20) +
      ggplot2::geom_vline(xintercept = truth, linetype = 2, linewidth = 0.8) +
      ggplot2::labs(
        x = "Estimated coefficient for x",
        y = "Count",
        title = "Sampling distribution of fixed-effect estimates",
        subtitle = sprintf("True beta = %s (vertical line)", truth)
      )

## From recovery to power

The same object `res` already contains empirical power: the fraction of converged runs with `p_value < alpha`.

    tibble::tibble(
      power = res$power,
      n_reject = res$n_reject,
      n_converged = res$n_converged,
      alpha = res$alpha
    )
    #> # A tibble: 1 × 4
    #>   power n_reject n_converged alpha
    #>   <dbl>    <int>       <int> <dbl>
    #> 1     1      200         200  0.05

Interpretation: Recovery summarizes the sampling distribution of \(\hat\beta\). Power summarizes how often that distribution leads to rejection at `alpha`. A large effect with low variance yields good recovery and high power; a small effect may show acceptable recovery (unbiased estimates) but low power at a fixed sample size.

## Variance components (illustrative snapshot)

`ild_power()` is built around a fixed-effect estimand. Recovery of variance components (random-intercept SD, residual variance) is a separate question. As a single-run sanity check, you can inspect `VarCorr()` on one simulated dataset ( `lme4` or `nlme` output depending on `ar1`):

    set.seed(1)
    d_one <- ild_simulate(n_id = 30L, n_obs_per = 15L, seed = 99)
    d_one$x <- rnorm(nrow(d_one))
    d_one$y <- d_one$y + 0.3 * d_one$x
    prep_one <- ild_prepare(d_one, id = "id", time = "time")
    fit_one <- ild_lme(y ~ x + (1 | id), prep_one, ar1 = FALSE, warn_no_ar1 = FALSE)
    #> Warning: Predictor(s) 'x' vary both within and between persons. Consider using
    #> ild_center(x) to separate within- and between-person effects and avoid
    #> conflation bias.
    lme4::VarCorr(fit_one)
    #>  Groups   Name        Std.Dev.
    #>  id       (Intercept) 0.97185
    #>  Residual             0.66690

This is not a simulation-based assessment of variance recovery—only a template for where to look when extending benchmarks.

## AR(1) in the DGP vs residual correlation in the fit

- `ild_simulate(..., ar1 = phi)` (numeric \(\phi\)) injects AR(1) within-person correlation in the outcome before `ild_power()` adds `x`.
- `ild_lme(..., ar1 = TRUE)` fits a residual AR1/CAR1 structure in `nlme` (different object from the DGP’s \(\phi\)); when `ar1 = TRUE`, the formula must be fixed-effects-only with `random = ~ 1 | id` (see `?ild_lme`).

`ild_power()` exposes `ar1` as a logical flag for the fit, not the DGP’s \(\phi\). To study AR(1) DGPs with `ild_power()`, you would need a custom loop calling `ild_simulate(..., ar1 = ...)` yourself, or prioritize alignment by matching structures in both steps. Minimal illustration of DGP AR + nlme residual correlation on one draw:

    set.seed(2)
    d_ar <- ild_simulate(n_id = 20L, n_obs_per = 14L, ar1 = 0.35, wp_effect = 0.5, seed = 2)
    d_ar$x <- rnorm(nrow(d_ar))
    d_ar$y <- d_ar$y + 0.25 * d_ar$x
    prep_ar <- ild_prepare(d_ar, id = "id", time = "time")
    fit_ar <- tryCatch(
      ild_lme(y ~ x, prep_ar, ar1 = TRUE, random = ~ 1 | id, warn_no_ar1 = FALSE),
      error = function(e) NULL
    )
    #> Warning: Predictor(s) 'x' vary both within and between persons. Consider using
    #> ild_center(x) to separate within- and between-person effects and avoid
    #> conflation bias.
    if (!is.null(fit_ar)) summary(fit_ar) else "nlme fit failed on this platform (skip)"
    #> Linear mixed-effects model fit by REML
    #>   Data: data
    #>        AIC    BIC    logLik
    #>   573.1519 591.29 -281.5759
    #>
    #> Random effects:
    #>  Formula: ~1 | id
    #>         (Intercept)  Residual
    #> StdDev:    1.024086 0.8321674
    #>
    #> Correlation Structure: AR(1)
    #>  Formula: ~.ild_seq | id
    #>  Parameter estimate(s):
    #>       Phi
    #> 0.6910938
    #> Fixed effects:  list(formula)
    #>                 Value  Std.Error  DF  t-value p-value
    #> (Intercept) 0.9146186 0.25045053 259 3.651893   3e-04
    #> x           0.2603221 0.03073403 259 8.470158   0e+00
    #>  Correlation:
    #>   (Intr)
    #> x -0.021
    #>
    #> Standardized Within-Group Residuals:
    #>         Min          Q1         Med          Q3         Max
    #> -2.17356216 -0.70843954 -0.07166726  0.61178709  2.15484654
    #>
    #> Number of Observations: 280
    #> Number of Groups: 20

## Bayesian and state-space extensions

- `ild_power()` currently drives `ild_lme()` only. For brms / Stan, use `ild_simulate()` + `ild_fit(..., backend = "brms")` (or `ild_brms()`) in your own replication loop, then summarize posterior intervals against `truth` with the same coverage idea (credible vs Wald nominal coverage is not interchangeable—document which you use).
- KFAS targets state-space models; see `vignette("kfas-state-space-modeling", package = "tidyILD")` and `?ild_kfas`. Cross-checking mixed-model simulation benchmarks against KFAS is out of scope here but natural for method comparison papers.

## Cross-backend validation harness (optional)

For repeatable CI-style checks across several engines (`lme4`, optional `nlme` / `brms` / KFAS / ctsem), the package ships a non-exported harness documented in `inst/dev/BACKEND_VALIDATION_BENCHMARK_CONTRACT.md`. From a source tree, run `scripts/run-backend-validation-benchmarks.R` with a `--tier` (`smoke`, `nightly`, `full`) and compare outputs to JSON thresholds via `scripts/check-backend-validation-thresholds.R`. This complements the `ild_power()` / `ild_recovery_metrics()` workflow above by standardizing raw and summary tables for trend comparison; it is not a substitute for study-specific simulation design.

## Limitations and scope

- One estimand in `ild_power()`: this path targets a single fixed effect in a linear mixed model fit with `ild_lme()`, matching the current `ild_power()` implementation.
- Inference: for `lme4` fits, `ild_power()` uses a Wald z-approximation when p-values are unavailable from the engine; that is appropriate for this illustration but not identical to likelihood-ratio tests.
- Variance / AR / other backends: recovery of variance components and AR parameters, brms, and KFAS are discussed above; full simulation suites for those paths are left to application-specific code.

## See also

- `vignette("tidyILD-workflow", package = "tidyILD")` — end-to-end pipeline.
- `?ild_power`, `?ild_recovery_metrics` — simulation-based power and recovery summaries.
- `?ild_simulate` — base data generator.

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